Myths surrounding pregnant women, Duruma

Duruma community in a developmental meeting.

The Duruma tribe is one of the Mijikenda tribes of Kenya. They are close in culture and traditions to Rabai. Most of the Durumas are neither Christian’s nor Muslims, therefore, they practice their own culture and traditional customs. Below are some of their traditional and cultural beliefs on what a pregnant woman should do or not do pertaining the pregnancy.

A pregnant woman should not see, touch or be close to ‘mufu’ referring to a dead body. This is because it is believed that the spirit of the dead can harm the baby, especially if the person was believed to have planted ‘jini’(a form of an evil spirit) in his or her homestead commonly known as ‘kuzika tupa’. This is a process where broken pieces of soda bottles are buried in the compound of an individual associated with witchcraft. One can ‘zika tupa’ with an aim of protecting themselves from witchcraft. It is said to be wise if the pregnant woman does not attend funerals at all because of protecting the baby from such evil spirits.

A pregnant woman should not make many people to know that she is pregnant, this increases the risk of being attacked by evil spirits and witchcraft. She should avoid contact with strange people and especially her enemies to avoid ‘kutsuphirwa utsawi’ which is literally means ‘being thrown witchcraft’ (bewitching).

In some ‘mbari’(clans) of the Duruma tribe,women are left alone to go through the process of

labour and she is not supposed to make a lot of noise even if she is in great pain; it’s believed to be a sign of strength. Therefore, most women give birth alone in a squatting position. Such women are what the community consider wife material. As a result of this, women are taught from girlhood that they must face the pain of natural childbirth with courage and fearlessness. Although, mothers giving birth for the first time sometimes may have midwifes because they are assumed to lack the experience hence guided n what to do or not do. Girls are advised to watch other women giving birth so as to learn to face their fears.

Women are expected to carry on with their duties as normal when pregnant up to the last day of their pregnancy. This include taking cattle to graze, collecting firewood from deep into the forests, caring for the other children, cooking and all sorts of other house chores. There is a saying in Duruma saying ‘mimba si ukongo’ literally translated as pregnancy is not a sickness. This means that one should not lazy around during pregnancy. I was born in the forest when my mother was herding cows and goats. All this working makes the woman fit and the unborn child is born with the right size because the mother is rarely overweight.

Most complications and difficulties during labour are viewed as signs of telling the community that the mother has engaged in an activity that is a taboo I the community, for example, being engaged in adultery or infidelity. The woman is blamed and seen as bringing shame in the community. in such a case, the elderly women in the clan are called to advise the laboring woman to confess, a lot of time is wasted in convincing the woman to confess rather than helping her which most of the time leads to death of both the woman and the infant.

 Most of the time, the woman is told to take ‘chirapho’ (a kind of taking an oath or swearing) which is supposed to kill her if she is lying and if she is saying the truth then she does not die after taking the oath. If she confesses, such a case is left unattended or little intervention is made because it is believed that the gods are punishing the woman for being involved in such immoral vises.

A husband to a pregnant woman should never go out and have sex with another woman during the period which the wife is pregnant. If he happens to do so, the baby is put at risk because during that time the husband is enjoying himself with another woman, the wife might or is likely to miscarry. If she doesn't miscarry at that time, and during the process of delivering, the other woman who had slept with the husband steps into the homestead, the baby will die at that instant. This is not the cause if the husband makes love with other women who he is legally married to them traditionally. The woman who would have caused the death of the child of the laboring woman is to be locked in a hut where goats and sheep stay until she starves to death. (The goats and sheep are built another hut and the hut is burnt down with the body of the woman, then a banana trunk is buried and forgotten).

Women are instructed not to take any medicine to ease the pain of labor, this is because labor is considered a natural thing and labor pains are used to define women in this community; if they are strong and courageous or cowards. If need be for the woman to take any medicine, then it must be herbs given to them by their midwives or those advising them mostly their mothers and mothers-in-law.

In addition, pregnant women should not eat a lot nearing her day of delivering because it is believed this will interfere with the pushing of the baby or the baby might come out with feces which will have a great impact on both the baby and the mother.

Duruma pregnant woman being massaged.

First, the baby will be nicknamed ‘mnyewa’ which means one who was not given birth to but come out just like feces. Such a child always feels inferior to the other children in the society. He will be always isolated. Lastly, the mother is a shame in the society so other women are warned not to be seen with her lest they be like her. Such a woman is a shames the husband.

A pregnant woman should not pay frequent visits to another pregnant woman or touch the belly of the other pregnant woman, this is believed to exchange the sexes of the babies the women are carrying. Moreover, people and especially the mother of the baby should not mention the sex of the baby. In doing so, people are confusing the evil spirits which are associated with babies’ misfortunes.

When one is pregnant, and sees a rainbow in the sky, then she can shout ‘mwana muche’ or ‘mwana mulume’ (female child or male child) to wish to either have a girl child or a boy child. The precaution to be taken is that the woman should be much decided on the sex of the child so as not to change her mind after wishing for one sex and wish for another; shouting twice saying different sexes. If she does so, the child maybe born with the two sexes (hermaphrodites).

The pregnant woman should not hate or critise a person who is ugly, this is because it is believed that the woman will give birth to a child resembling the ugly person. She should not look at ugly objects and images for the same reason. This is to mean that the pregnant woman should avoid coming into contact with ugly things and people, especially too dark people.

Moreover, pregnant women should not be abusive or use foul language because it could make the child to be cursed and be so ill-mannered in the future; lacking the cultural and moral values of the society. Therefore, when a pregnant woman utters abusive words, an animal is slaughtered to appease the spirits and the dead. It should be a sheep or a lamb and never a goat because a goats are believed to be so tough headed hence one will not like the son or daughter to be rude and arrogant like the goat; the lamb is usually meek.

Termination of a pregnancy in the Duruma community is unheard of and forbidden. This is due to the traditional and cultural religious beliefs that the community upholds. This traditional religious practices stress the importance of children; children are a gift from ‘Mulungu’ (God), and one should have as many as God gives her. Those who attempted to control pregnancy would be plagued with illness or one of their family member would experience the illness which would cause or lead to death. This can also be attributed to the fact that children were a source of labor and wealth to a homestead. A homestead with many children would rarely be faced with hunger unless because of unfavorable climatic conditions and curses.

Drinking of ‘uchi’- a general term used to refer to traditional brew; either made from tapping a coconut tree called mnazi or any other locally made brew- is not allowed in the Duruma community. This is believed to cause health problems to the child. For example, excessive drinking of mnazi would cause still birth, miscarriage and the child being born with low birth weight or even cause the death of the child.

Giving birth to children with abnormalities is associated with curses from the ancestors. Such children end up being abandoned in the ‘evil forests’. This are forests where it is believed evil resides; all the ghosts and spirits are in plenty in this forests. In some ‘mbari’(clans), the women who give birth to such are take back to their villages because it is believed that the women carried with them such curses from their family-lines. Once back home, sacrifices are made to appease the spirits and ancestors.

Despite of the introduction of medical facilities like hospitals and clinics, traditional Duruma women and community at large feel that only cowards and weak women seek medical intervention during pregnancy. Women must go to ‘waganga (traditional medicine men and women) and traditional birth attendance in case they come across any problems during their prenatal stage. They believe that this people are the one who know the traditional and cultural values of the community hence know what to do in a given situation.

A witchdoctor at work.

Any infant who brings complications to the mother and causes the mother to seek modern hospitals is seen as bad omen and will always be ill-health because he is considered to have come with bad intention ‘yukudza voro’ hence most of the time is isolated by other kids because the parents do not allow their children to associate with a kid with bad intention.

There is also a belief that because so many different strange people have died in the clinics and hospitals, many spirits from all those dead people are hovering all over the clinics and hospitals. Therefore, they fear that this spirits will enter or haunt the baby in case a pregnant woman visits the clinic since one does not know if the people who died in the hospital were morally upright or not. They even avoid physical contact with formal medical doctors because to them are strangers. As a result, therefore, they prefer to give birth in the villages at home where they are surrounded by their own well known people or relatives even when they are manifested by problems.

Miscarriage is always met with silence. This is an experience where it might not be possible to articulate one’s true feelings, so women may express themselves as much through what they do rather than what they say, for example, carrying water for the woman, and bringing firewood to the homestead and even food. Attitudes are expressed in clothing, home decoration, gifting and other activities.

When a man who is much known in the community to be a witch dies while the wife is pregnant, the pregnant woman is supposed to climb on one of the woods on the roof (from inside) with a cup of water and pour the water on the body of the husband. The water should land on the chest. By doing this the pregnant is preventing the child from inheriting the witchcraft from the dead father. If the woman does not carry out this ritual, then the unborn child will be successor of the father’s witchcraft hence will follow the ways of his father.

The husband and any other man is not allowed to witness or even be near where the woman is delivering; cannot watch when the wife is giving birth. He cannot eve touch the wife even after the child is born until the child and the mother are ritually cleansed; a ceremony known as ‘kulavywa konze’ where the mother is secluded in her hut with the baby until she stops bleeding and burial of the placenta.

During this process, the husband of the woman who had just given birth should not even attempt

Duruma women carrying firewood home.

To have sex with another woman ‘kumkira’ (literally translated as cross over).if he does so then the child will grow up being a sickling until another cleansing ceremony is carried out. When the umbilical cord fall off, that is when the child will be taken out of the hut where they had been secluded with the mother and shown to the father, then to the community at large. A goat is slaughtered as a sacrifice and the skin of the animal is given to the new infant as a protective clothing or sleeping mat From the skin, a small bracelet is made and tied at the wrist of the child; also a sign of protection from evil spirit.

 Pregnant women should avoid being alone or walk alone, especially when darkness has already fallen. This is because it is believed that spirits may attack her and there will be no one to help her hence may die in the process of struggling with the spirit. An elderly woman is supposed to accompany her anywhere she was to go, especially if she is going to the bush to reveal herself (traditional and even now in some part of Duruma land, people usually go to the forest to relieve themselves; there were no toilets)

Pregnant women should not eat from the cooking pot. This is believed that it would cause the baby being born to be so greedy and eat a lot of food.it is believed also that he or she will never be able to control his or her appetite hence will be eating in any homestead that he visit, which is not good because one would not know the intention of each individual in the community hence might be poisoned.

A pregnant woman is supposed not to take or eat eggs and milk excessively because this is believed it causes large babies and difficulties during births. Eggs are also held responsible for dark skin color. Red pepper is also said to cause a red permanent sport at the head of a child and will have difficulties in growing hair at that particular spot. This is one of the reasons why infants in the rural areas are born with low birth weight and high pre-natal and infant mortality, because of lack of nutritional requirements and poor maternal nutrition during pregnancy. Most of the foods seen as taboos have been identified as one of the factors contributing to maternal under nutrition in pregnancy.

A necklace is placed around the neck of the infant before the umbilical cord is cut. This ensures that the baby’s life is to the necklace, not to the cord, therefore when the cord falls off, the baby will continue leaving because its life is tied to the necklace and not the cord.

Sexual intercourse should be avoid during the last days to delivering, this gives the baby a flat head and may also harm the baby. During the first few months, it is believed sex is very useful because it is a form of exercise for the pregnant woman who keeps the pregnant woman very fit. After delivering, sexual activities are restricted because of the reasons that the mother is weak, the wound is not healed and she is still bleeding. Touching blood from such a woman is considered a taboo.

The mother in law is the one supposed to attend to the pregnant daughter-in-law during the delivering. The real mother to the [pregnant woman is supposed to be called after the daughter has already given birth. If the mother comes before the daughter has given birth then it is like an abuse to the mother- in-law, it is like saying the mother-in-law is not competence enough to help her daughter in law deliver. In addition, the mother in law is the one who is supposed to shave the child’s hair for the first time. By doing this, she is inviting and welcoming the child to the homestead. It is a form of also blessing the new baby.

Apart from associating complications during pregnancy with the woman’s immoral behavior, complications are sometimes associated with evil spirits especially if the pregnant woman in question is known to be of good morals and responsible behavior. In such a case, the traditional midwives cast magical spells and conduct ceremonies to chase the spirits, traditional healers also use special medicine commonly known as ‘mwavuo’ prepared from herbal  crashed roots and some leaves.

When the infant is still in the womb and even after being born should not be praised, it is believed if they are praised, bad or evil spirits will take the infant away or the baby might die. At the same time, one cannot say that a baby is fat or of good health. This is believed to cause the child some illness or be so sick although his /her youth life. Such a child is also believed to be slim or extra thin when grown, and however much the person will eat, he /she will never grow fat or be of good health.

It is believed that a pregnant woman should not tie knots when pregnant. This belief is more severe when the pregnant woman is tying using a sisal rope. It is believed that doing this would struggle the baby and if not untied in time then the baby will die.  This is why most Duruma women tie their firewood using pieces of torn’ lesos’ commonly known as ‘videmu’, which is literally translated as rags. It is believed that using pieces of clothing will not harm the baby because clothes are in a way protective hence it’s supposed to protect the baby not to harm it.

A pregnant woman should not go in the same direction as the father- in -law when going to help themselves even if it is just a short call. The phrase used in this concept is ‘vue mwenga’; this is literally translated as one bush. This is believed to be disrespectful to either of them. Therefore, to avoid this, the mother- in-law tells the daughter-n-law which direction to go when wanting to relive herself and also informs the husband (father-in-law to the pregnant woman) which direction to follow.

Pregnant women were not to tie two lesos at a time; either on their waist or at their head as head covers. Doing this will make the pregnant woman give birth to twins which according to the Duruma was not so much welcomed. The husband to the pregnant woman, is not supposed to wear or put on two hats either during the period when the wife is pregnant. This is due to the same reason; that the wife will give birth to twins.

The pregnant woman is not supposed to kill any animal during her pregnancy; neither should the husband during this season. It is believed this will bring bad omen to the child and the family at large. In case the family wants to eat any meat, then the neighbor will be called upon to slaughter the animal.

Moreover, the husband to the pregnant woman or the pregnant woman should not cut the legs of any domestic animal or the baby will be born crippled or be born with severe deformities. The woman and the husband are only allowed to kill and harm those animals and birds that are posing danger to human beings, for instance, snakes, lions and other dangerous wild animals. During this period, the family should minimize shedding blood at all cost. 

The pregnant woman should not accept any gifts to the infant or celebrate the infant before the infant is born. This is believed to anger the ancestors and the spirits. It will cause the baby to be born deformed or even taken ach by the ancestors.

Women who become pregnant for the first time were to make frequent visits to midwives in order to check and ensure that the pregnancy is going on well, if a mid-wife stayed far from the village then these women would turn to elder women and friends who will guide them and explain to them from experience what they were supposed to do. These women acted as resource material to the pregnant women. Mothers and grandmothers acted as consultants for health-care issues during pregnancy.

The pregnant woman is not supposed to visit any homestead in which people who are believed to be witches are residing, this is to avoid to come into contact with them. Coming to contact will be like digging her own grave and child’s. She is also supposed to come into contact with any person that come from such homesteads. In any case if she comes across them accidentally, then she should perform a ceremony known as ‘kuoga na mavuo’. ‘Mavuo’ is a concussion made from some herbs that the pregnant woman is supposed to bath with as a way of cleansing herself.

 If a pregnant woman would lose the pregnancy either through miscarriage or any other cause, all the other women in that village would live their works and mourn with the woman; they would do house chores but they would not do economic works, for example going to the farms, engaging in barter trade or any business. This is a sign of having unity and harmony in the village, they will only resume their work after the woman has been cleansed through a cleansing ceremony.

The pregnant woman should not watch any scenes where killings are taking place, for example, people killing each other; can be war or any tribal clashes or inter-clan wars, this will have a negative effect to the baby. It is believed that in future the child will have unaccepted behavior in the society and may not be able to live in peace and harmony with the other people of the society. Keeping laws and having moral values will not be present in this growing up child.

A pregnant woman should not be teased by the husband because whatever the husband is saying may come to pass. The family members should be very careful in anything that they utter about the unborn child and the pregnant woman. This is more critical when it comes to giving or calling the woman nicknames or abusive names.

A pregnant woman could not participate in marriage ceremonies or arrangements. The clash of two joys ( that of being pregnant and that of marriage union) is not good for the expectant mother, however, if the pregnant woman chooses to attend or have to attend due to some concrete reasons, then she should not the bride.

Scissors near or on the marital bed should be avoided by a pregnant woman like a plague. It is believed that this will affect the baby in the womb causing the child to be born with some missing or incomplete parts. Activities such as hammering, chopping and drilling are believed to lead to abortion or fetal deformities. A pregnant woman should stay away from such activities and if need be, then she should call someone who would help her in carrying out such activities.

The color of food consumed by the pregnant woman is believed to half an effect on the physical features and health of the unborn child. Consuming dark colored food stuff is believed to cause or make the baby have dark skin. Light colored food is believed to make the skin of the baby light or fair skinned.

A pregnant woman should try and struggle to stay happy as much as possible. The emotional state of the pregnant woman is believed to have a bearing on the unborn child, it is said that affects the mother affects the baby and if the mother is sad always and rarely happy, the child will be always crying after being born and will not be smiling to people, rather he /she will always keep to herself nor himself.

A pregnant woman should always wear some beads normally known as ‘Ndonga’ on their waists and sometimes on their wrists which is believed to protect the baby from all those who have evil plans on the unborn child. These beads are usually obtained from the traditional healers and medicine men. There are some directives and instructions which the pregnant woman should follow to the latter upon which if one breaks one of the rules given, may cause harm to the baby and other members in that family that she belongs to. This can also cause the pregnant woman to become mad for the rest of her life in case she will not go back and find another superior medicine man or woman that has the power to undo curses.

A pregnant woman is not supposed to join the rest of the villages in digging a village dam or well ‘mtsara’. Though this is a communal activity and all people are supposed to take part in, a pregnant woman is exempted because different people will be there hence others might cast an evil eye on the pregnant woman.

Moreover, a pregnant woman should not make advance preparation for her unborn child. This is to confuse the spirits or the ancestors on the sex of the child hence may not be able to harm the baby. Everything should be done at the moment when it’s needed, for example, babies clothes should be born after people have seen the baby and is in a good state or health. This is done also in such a way that if a woman’s child during giving birth, then there will be nothing in the house that will constantly remind the woman of the dead child. Many advanced arrangements is also viewed as a way of telling and announcing to the spirit that one is pregnant hence the spirits may harm the unborn child.

'Mstara' - A dam

The pregnant woman should not also bury anything in the soil during this period. Although, the pregnant woman is allowed to burry cassava in the ground since it was the only way to preserve cassava. When cassava is buried in the ground then it does not get spoilt quickly hence it is not considered a taboo when a pregnant woman does so.

If a man doubted if the pregnancy that the wife is carrying belongs to him or not, or for a non-married woman who gets pregnant at home and refuses to reveal the father of the unborn child, traditional midwifes somehow prolong the labor process then ask her to name the father of the unborn child claiming that it’s the only way that the child will be delivered without any complications, hence, such women end up confessing thereby revealing the father of the child.

Craving for things during pregnancy is believed to indicate the sex of the unborn child; if the pregnant mother long for sweet things or food all the time then it is a girl child. While on the other hand, if the pregnant woman is craving for bitter and sour things and food indicates that the child is a man. In my opinion, this is derived from the fact that men are never interested in sweet n sugary this in reality while women are also not interested with most sour things generally although we have some exceptions.

A shaving ceremony is to be carried out in a family which a pregnant woman loses a baby during pregnancy. Losing a pregnancy is viewed to have been caused by evil spirits or vices. Shaving is a sign of chasing out the evil spirits from the family. If in a homestead different women are losing pregnancies in a given period, the shaving ceremony is carried out for all the people in that homestead as a way of pleasing the ancestors and also cleansing the homestead.

When the pregnant woman is left with some days to her delivering, she should go to the forest and identify a place where she is going to place the baby after the baby is born so as to confuse the evil spirit. When the baby is born, she is to be hidden in the deep forest whereas another woman who will see the baby, and knowing the significance of the ritual, will take the baby to its homestead claiming to have found the baby while in real sense she will be returning the baby to its real mother.

 In those days, babies were not thrown anyhow as it is nowadays, so as a result, any baby found in the forest was for such purposes. Men could not pick the baby even if they came across one, the much they could do was just to keep ma watch from a distance as he waited for a female to come and pick the baby.

In some Duruma clans, for example, ‘wachanda’ the pregnant wife leaves her husband’s homestead and heads for her village  where she was born where she will give birth and return to her husband one month after giving birth. They believe that her mother is the best person to take care of her rather than her in-laws. In this clan, the woman who gives birth at her in-laws is believed to not have been in good terms with her relatives.

If a pregnant woman passes through a place in a forest and feel the smell of sweet food, especially rice cooked using coconut milk, the woman is supposed to spit aside and say ‘pu! arya mwenye’ which means ‘eat alone’, by doing this she will be refusing the invitation the evil spirits are giving her to go and dine with them; if one does not do that then the evil spirits will eat their rice with the child as their meat hence the woman will have a miscarriage or a stillbirth.

During the pregnancy, the pregnant woman should go to the shrine ‘kaya’ with her mother-in-law to dedicate the unborn child to their god and to pray to have a safe child birth. A pregnant woman who does not visit the kaya is believed to have complications during the process of giving birth and may result to death.

Pregnant women should not be beaten during the last three months to delivering. This is because pregnancy is not only seen as procreation of future generations, but a way in which ancestors return to their loved ones through the birth of new infants therefore it should be respected and respected. Anyone who try to terminated or harm it is usually cursed and punished severely by the ancestors and spirits of the dead.

A pregnant woman should not put ‘lungo’ (a traditional basket like thing made from sisal and ‘mlala’ (a shrub) that sometimes is made to resemble a small mat which is used hen winnowing) on her head. This is believed to make the unborn child not to grow tall in future.

Non- married pregnant women are not allowed to walk freely in the society, they are supposed to stay indoors or in the boundaries of their homestead. To be pregnant and not married was considered to be a taboo. These woman are not only taunted by only strangers but also their own family members and friends. The family may decide to disown the woman while the lucky ones are either forced to marry the father of the child (if known), get married in a polygamous marriage, forced to marry very old men or are sent to a distant relatives for the duration of the pregnancy in order to save the family the embarrassment.

An infertile woman in a polygamous family is not allowed to enter the hut of or touch her co-wife because it is believed that she might harm the baby because of her jealousness. Or her sight near the pregnant woman might attract evil spirits (the spirits that have caused her barrenness) which will cause harm to both the baby and the co-wife. She is only to set eyes on the child after the ceremony of taking out the mother has been carried out.

A duruma Kaya.

The pregnant woman should be tidy and try her best to make herself beautiful, this will influence the beauty of the unborn child. A pregnant woman who is untidy and dirty will give birth to an ugly child. The behavior of the child is believed to shaped by this, a child who behave according to the norms and traditions of the community is believed to have been born by a tidy while the contrast is much true.

Drinking of coconut water is believed to be good for the pregnant woman because it ease the labor pains hence help the mother not to feel much pain during labor. Coconut water should not be confused with coconut milk or the local brew from the coconut tree locally known as mnazi; this is very harmful to both the baby and the mother as illustrated earlier.

Pregnant woman were never constantly reminded to keep way from activities that require a lot of concentration. This is believed to strain the mother hence may make the child to be born before its actual time which may bring some complication in it.

Pregnant women should not stay calm during labor. They are encouraged to cry and be very verbal during this process. This is because it is believed that being calm and quite may make the child to be dump and deaf. The woman is not allowed to shout so loudly although, because this would be sign of being a coward hence an embarrassment to the husband.

One should not cross over the legs of a pregnant woman who is sited down and not folded her legs ‘kutororosa’ meaning ‘spreading the legs’. If one happens to cross over from one side to another, the pregnant woman will have complications when giving birth. To undo this, one crosses over to the side he/she was and then run to the forest and look for a shrub by the name ‘mbanda kesi’ (literally meaning breaking a case) . Once one finds the tree, they should not call it by the name until where the woman is then say “ nivunzira ino kesi” literally translated as ‘break for me this case’ the tree will wither as a symbol that the curse has been taken back hence one is good to go. The person then throws the tree and continue with their daily duties.

STORY BY: SAMUEL KOMBE